PI3K/ AKT/mTOR Pathway Inhibitors in the Treatment of HR+/HER2- Metastatic Breast Cancer

Insulin is a highly anabolic hormone in skeletal muscle, where it activates the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway to stimulate protein synthesis, enhance amino acid uptake, and inhibit proteolysis for net hypertrophy. It further suppresses muscle protein breakdown while promoting translation initiation through mTORC1 signaling. In bone tissue, insulin directly binds to receptors on osteoblasts, driving their proliferation, differentiation, and collagen production via MAPK and PI3K pathways. Overall, this le